Unveiling the Genetic and Cancer Risks of Shisha Use in Young Adults in Bayelsa State, Southern Nigeria
Onitsha, Enebrayi Nelson *
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Ezeiruaku, Ferdinand Chukwuma
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Gborienemi George Simeon
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Okutu, Jackson Borobuebi
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Daniel Samuel
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Bayelsa State College of Health Technology, Otuogidi, Ogbia Town, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Lokoja Ebiweni James
Department of Medical Laboratory Services, Bayelsa State Ministry of Health, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Abiodun Funmilayo Tosin
Lagos State Accident and Emergency Center Toll-gate Ikeja, Nigeria.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
Introduction: Shisha smoking has gained popularity globally and has become an emerging public health concern among adolescents and young adults. Unlike cigarette smoking, it is perceived as less harmful, yet emerging evidences indicate that it poses a serious risk to human health.
Aim: This study assessed the genetic and cancer risk related to shisha smoking among shisha users in Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
Methodology: A longitudinal study design which comprised of 150 subjects aged 16-35 years were categorized into five groups of 30 each comprising: waterpipe smokers, cigarette smokers, both smokers, secondhand smokers, and non-smokers. Blood samples were collected for the measurement of some biochemical parameters using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry, and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay techniques. Statistical analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences, and p<0.05 was considered significant.
Results: The findings indicated significant increase (p< 0.05) in serum lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) concentrations in all categories of smokers compared to non-smokers, whereas serum zinc (Zn) levels were significantly reduced in smokers. Serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels were significantly elevated (p< 0.05) in all smokers compared to non-smokers. The levels of cancer antigen-125 (CA-125), cancer antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3), 8-Nitroguanine (8-NO₂-Gua), and 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) were slightly elevated in all smokers than non-smokers. Primary shisha smokers demonstrated significantly lower concentrations of Pb, Cd, Zn, CA 15-3, and CEA compared to cigarette smokers. Secondhand shisha smokers exhibited elevated levels of Pb, Cd, CA-125, CA 15-3, CEA, 8-NO₂-Gua, and 4-HNE compared to primary shisha smokers. Individuals who smoked both shisha and cigarettes showed significantly increased levels (p<0.05) of Pb, Cd, CA 15-3, and CEA when compared to primary shisha users. A positive correlation was observed between Pb and Cd, and DNA damage biomarkers, while zinc exhibited a negative correlation with DNA damage biomarkers.
Conclusion: This study confirmed the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of shisha smoking, hence emphasized the necessity of an increased public awareness campaigns and interventions in Bayelsa State.
Keywords: Carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, heavy metals, shisha, DNA damage markers